Introduction to the History of Computing

Last Updated: March 23, 2024 I am currently focusing on computer science research.

As a sophomore, when I began researching the history of computing, I encountered huge difficulty in finding which books or papers to read. This field has a limited number of researchers, making it challenging for beginners to obtain sufficient information without taking significant initiative or encountering good fortune. (In Japan, there are about five researchers in this field… I am grateful to my academic adviser for granting me a high level of autonomy and offering me appropriate guidance, despite being far from his expertise.) I decided to write an introductory article for beginners to help those who are struggling, like myself at the time. I will provide some comments for someone fluent in Japanese (such as the availability of Japanese translation).

What is the History of Computing

Everything has a history. I will write something long here~~

The image below is not accurate, but it is roughly correct. History of Computing

Like historians in other disciplines who read Latin or Ancient Greek, Historians of Computing should also be familiar with programming languages such as ALGOL, LISP, and Prolog.

History of the History of Computing

1960s

In the 1960s, when the field of Computer Science was emerging, some practitioners wrote encyclopedic histories and organized individual programming languages chronologically. Representative works from this period include Saul Rosen’s Programming Systems and Languages (McGraw-Hill, 1967) and Jean E. Sammet’s Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (Prentice Hall, 1969). The latter comprehensively describes the technical aspects of the development of 116 programming languages up to the mid-1960s. This work was one of the reasons for the large number of historical studies of programming languages in later years.

1970s

The 1970s were a crucial period for the development of the history of computing. During this time, museums and journals were established, and professional historians of computing emerged. Notably, the Charles Babbage Institute was founded in 1978, and the IEEE Annals of the History of Computing published its first issues in July 1979. Also, the inaugural conference on the history of programming languages took place in Los Angeles in 1978, and the first significant conference on the history of computing was held at Los Alamos in June 1979. However, the papers presented were primarily from practitioners with an interest in history. In fact, books published during this period, such as Herman H. Goldstein’s The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann (one of the earliest written overviews of the history of the computer) and The Origins of Digital Computers edited by Brian Randell, who was an advisor of M. Campbell-Kelly, were practitioner-oriented.

1980s

During the 1980s, researcher’s communities began to take shape, and histories of the software industry from a business history perspective began to surface. For instance, Claude Baum’s research on the history of System Development Corporation (SDC), a California-based software company, and Richard L. Forman’s research on the history of Informatics, another software company. However, many of these studies were conducted by journalists and company founders, and there were still existing hagiographical and encyclopedic histories. Additionally, there were numerous studies on the detailed developmental and theoretical history of programming languages and computer technology, such as Richard L. Wexelblat’s History of Programming Languages(Academic Press, 1981) and Martin Campbell-Kelly’s work. The IEEE Annals of the History of Computing also featured FORTRAN in 1984 and COBOL in 1985.

1990s

During the 1990s, textbooks were published that had a significant impact on later years, and especially the late 1990s saw an increase in the number of historians of computing, research topics, and research approaches. Books authored by notable researchers W. Aspray and P. Ceruzzi et al. have undergone multiple editions and continue to serve as the foundation for the history of computing. Also, Michael S. Mahoney, who was a pioneer in the study of software history, shifted his research focus from the history of mathematics to the history of software and conducted pioneering research on software engineering (“The Roots of Software Engineering”, 1990). In addition, there was a technology history approach taken, exemplified by The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America by Paul N. Edwards.

2000s

In the 2000s, the history of computing began to describe a broader perspective beyond individual devices and languages. For example, an international conference on the history of computing held in Germany in April 2000 advocated for the benefits of taking a historical perspective on the boundary work of the discipline of Computer Science, The earliest paper that focused on the birth and establishment of this field of Computer Science is John Lee’s 1996 paper. However, as noted in Matti Tedre’s The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline (CRC Press, 2015), Mai Sugimoto’s Artificial Intelligence Eve (Seidosya, 2018), and Peter Denning and Matti Tedre’s Computational Thinking (MIT Press, 2019), this research trend continues to this day. Also, there is a tendency to view software research in relation to logic. For instance, A Science of Operations: Machines, Logic and the Invention of Programming written by Mark A. Priestley claims that the development of the ALGOL language around 1960 strengthened the connection between programming languages and logic. Similarly, Edgar Daylight attempts to clarify the influence of logic in computing through the oral history of early computer scientists. Generally, The history of computing in the 2000s has been dominated by historical studies that focus on theoretical aspects of computing. Representative researchers include Donald MacKenzie, a British sociologist of science, and Michael Mahoney as mentioned above. MacKenzie presents a convincing argument from a social constructivist perspective. The author delves into technical details, explaining how computer-generated mathematical knowledge can be considered trustworthy. Mahoney examines the relationship between computing and mathematical logic, as well as software engineering and computer science, introducing the concept of “agenda”, similar to T. Kuhn’s paradigm. Mahoney’s work was influential in discussing the methodology of the history of computing research, although there are some issues with the retrospective and technical descriptions. The 2000s were a time of rethinking the history of computing. This was evidenced by the creation of a column on historical research methodology called Think Piece in the third issue of IEEE Annals of the History of Computing in 2000.

2010s

Although the 2000s focused more on theoretical aspects of computing, there were also significant social history works that examined computer users like David A. Grier’s When Computer was Human(Princeton University Press, 2007). Since the 2010s, the field of social history has become increasingly diverse in terms of research subjects and approaches. This includes gender history, business history, institutional history, and cultural history. For example, Thomas J. Misa edited a work that deals with gender in the history of computing(Gender Codes: Why Women Are Leaving Computing). Additionally, since 2010, Springer has been publishing the History of Computing series with an emphasis on “external” history. Over 20 books in this series have been published, demonstrating the significant focus on social history in the history of computing in recent years.

Introductory/Must-read Books and Papers

Journal: IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
Thomas S. Mullaney and Christopher Rea, Where Research Begins Choosing a Research Project That Matters to You (and the World)
- WRB
Computer: A History of the Information Machine 『コンピューティング史：人間は情報をいかに取り扱ってきたか』，『コンピュータ200年史：情報マシーン開発物語』（後者は旧訳）
- This is the most popular textbook that provides a comprehensive history of computing from 19C, before the advent of electronic computers, to the spread of personal computers and the use of the Internet in the modern era. An illustrated book was written based on this book.↓
  - Rachel Ignotofsky, The History of the Computer: People, Inventions, and Technology that Changed Our World『イラストで学ぶ　世界を変えたコンピュータの歴史』
Thomas Haigh and Paul E. Ceruzzi, A New History of Modern Computing, A History of Modern Computing 『モダン・コンピューティングの歴史』
- The latter is more technical and focuses on software.
Swade, Doron. (2022). The History of Computing: A Very Short Introduction
Paul E. Ceruzzi, Computing: A Concise History『コンピュータって: 機械式計算機からスマホまで』
George Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe 『チューリングの大聖堂: コンピュータの創造とデジタル世界の到来』（文庫版もある）
- This book mainly focuses on the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where Neumann and others were, rather than on the UK, where Turing was actively working.
Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought: The History and Future of Mind-Expanding Technology『新思考のための道具知性を拡張するためのテクノロジー：その歴史と未来』
Lee, John A. N. “Those Who Forget the Lessons of History Are Doomed To Repeat It or, Why I Study the History of Computing”, IEEE Annals of History of Computing 18, no.2 (1996): 54-62.
Martin Cambell-Kelly, “The History of the History of Software” (2007)
Donald Knuth, “Let’s Not Dumb Down the History of Computer Science” (2014)
- This movie will be useful.
Martin Campbell-Kelly, “Knuth and the Spectrum of History” (2014)
Thomas Haigh, “The Tears of Donald Knuth”(2015)
Thomas Haigh, Key Resources in the History of Computing
Thomas Haigh, Tools and Methods in the History of Computing

Recommended Books and Papers (NB: I have not followed the latest research and the following is far from a complete list.)

History of Computer Science
- Michael S. Mahoney, edited by Thomas Haigh, Histories of Computing (2011).
- Matti Tedre, The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. (2015)
- Denning, Peter J., and Matti Tedre, Computational Thinking, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2019.
History of Theoretical Computer Science
- Martin Davis, The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing (2000)『万能コンピュータ：ライプニッツからチューリングへの道すじ』
- Donald MacKenzie, Mechanizing Proof: Computing, Risk, and Trust (2001)
- Jones, C.B., “The Early Search for Tractable Ways of Reasoning about Programs.” (2003)
- Priestley, M., A Science of Operations: Machines, Logic, and the Invention of Programming. (2011)
- Daylight, E.G., Turing Tales (2016)
- Toma Kawanishi, “Prehistory of Switching Theory in Japan: Akira Nakashima and His Relay-circuit Theory.”(2019)
History of Software
- Valdez, Maria Eloina Pel\UTF{00E4}ez. “A Gift from Pandora’s Box: The Software Crisis”, PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1988.
- Thomas Haigh, “Software in the 1960s as Concept, Service, and Product”, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 24, no.1 (2002): 5-13.
- Daylight, E.G., The Dawn of Software Engineering: From Turing to Dijkstra. Lonely Scholar (2012)
Philosophy of Computing
- “Philosophy of science without history of science is empty; history of science without philosophy of science is blind.” (I. Lakatos, The methodology of scientific research programmes, Philosophical Papers, Vol. 1, 1978, p.102)
- William J. Rapaport, Philosophy of Computer Science: An Introduction to the Issues and the Literature, 2023
- Paul Humphreys, Philosophical Papers, 2018
Cybernetics
- Ronald R. Kline. The Cybernetics Moment: Or Why We Call Our Age the Information Age. (2015)
- Heims, Steve Joshua, The Cybernetics Group (1991)『サイバネティクス学者たちーアメリカ戦後科学の出発』
- Gerovitch, Slava, From Newspeak to Cyberspeak, (2004). 『ニュースピークからサイバースピークへ：ソ連における科学・政治・言語』．
  - This book deals with the reception of cybernetics in the Soviet Union. Although the history of cybernetics is complex and difficult to write about, the third chapter of this book provides a complete and clear summary of the history, noting the similarities between Kolmogorov and Wiener. I found the history of science in the Soviet Union fascinating after reading this book.
- Thomas Rid, Rise of the Machines: A Cybernetic History (2016)『サイバネティクス全史：人類は思考するマシンに何を夢見たのか』．
History of Computer
- Goldstine, Herman H. (1980). The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann 『計算機の歴史：パスカルからノイマンまで』（2016年に復刊）
- Eames, Charles, and Ray Eames, ed. A Computer Perspective: Background to the Computer Age. Harvard University Press, 1990. 『コンピュータ・パースペクティブー計算機創造の軌跡』.
- Haigh, Thomas, Mark Priestley, and Crispin Rope, ENIAC in Action: Making and Remaking the Modern Computer, (2016) 『ENIAC』
Military and Computing, History of Cryptography
- Edwards, Paul N., The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996.『クローズドワールド』．
Social History
- Gender History
  - Nathan L. Ensmenger, The Computer Boys Take Over: Computers, Programmers, and the Politics of Technical Expertise
    - This will be useful.
  - Mar Hicks, Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing
  - Jennifer S. Light, When Computers were Women, (1999)
  - Grier, David Alan, When Computers Were Human, Princeton University Press, 2007.
  - Thomas J. Misa ed., Gender Codes: Why Women Are Leaving Computing (2010)
  - Janet Abbate, Recoding Gender: Women’s Changing Participation in Computing
  - Nathalia Holt, Rise of the Rocket Girls - The Women Who Propelled Us, From Missiles to the Moon to Mars 『ロケットガールの誕生：コンピューターになった女性たち』
  - William Aspray, Women and Information Technology: Research on Underrepresentation (2006)
  - Kathy Kleiman, Proving Ground: The Untold Story of the Six Women Who Programmed the World’s First Modern Computer, Hachette Book Group (Grand Central Publishing), 2022. 『コンピューター誕生の歴史に隠れた6人の女性プログラマー』
- Cultural History
  - Scott Selisker, Huma Programming: Brainwashing, Automatons, and American Unfreedom, 2016
- Hacker Culture
  - Christopher Tozzi, For Fun and Profit: A History of the Free and Open Source Software Revolution
  - Steven Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution『ハッカーズ』
Business History
- William Aspray and Paul E. Ceruzzi eds., The Internet and American Business
- Haigh, Thomas. “Inventing Information Systems: The Systems Men and the Computer, 1950-1968.” The Business History Review 75, no.1(2001), 15-61.
Industrial History
- Martin Campbell-Kelly, From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog: A History of the Software Industry
- James W. Gortada, IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon
- Jeffrey R. Yost, Making IT Work: A History of the Computer Services Industry
Biography
- Beyer, Kurt W. 2009. Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age. Cambridge: MIT Press
- Chris Bernhardt, Turing’s Vision: The Birth of Computer Science
- Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma: The Book That Inspired the Film The Imitation Game 『エニグマアラン・チューリング伝上・下』
- B. Jack Copeland, The Essential Turing: Seminal Writings in Computing, Logic, Philosophy, Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Life plus The Secrets of Enigma 『チューリング：情報時代のパイオニア』
- Ananyo Bhattacharya, The Man from the Future: The Visionary Life of John von Neumann 『未来から来た男：ジョン・フォン・ノイマン』
- Norman MacRae, John Von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More『フォン・ノイマンの生涯』（朝日選書，のちに，ちくま学芸文庫に）
- Heims, Steve Joshua, John Von Neumann and Norbert Wierner: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, The MIT Press, 1982. 『フォン・ノイマンとウィーナー　2人の天才の生涯』.
- Conway, Flo, Jim Siegelman, Dark Hero of the Information Age: In Search of Norbert Wiener The Father of Cybernetics, Basic Books, 2006. 『情報時代の見えないヒーロー［ノーバート・ウィーナー伝］』.
- Jimmy Soni & Rob Goodman, A Mind at Play: How Claude Shannon Invented the Information Age 『クロード・シャノン情報時代を発明した男』
- William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing 『ノイマンとコンピュータの起源』
- Charles Petzold, The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour Through Alan Turing’s Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing Machine 『チューリングを読む：コンピュータサイエンスの金字塔を楽しもう』
- Tara Abraham, Rebel Genius: Warren S. McCulloch’s Transdisciplinary Life in Science, 2016
- Sara Turing, John Turing, Martin Davis, Lyn Irvine, Alan M. Turing: Centenary Edition 渡辺茂，丹波富士男訳『アラン・チューリング伝ー電算機の予言者』1969
- Alan Turing’s Systems of Logic: The Princeton Thesis, 2012, edited by Andrew W. Appel
  - Turing’s 1938 Princeton PhD thesis
Other studies that may be helpful
- Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work For Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave
- Virginia Postrel, The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World『織物の文明史』
- Ben Allen, “Critical approaches to the materiality of source code: between text and machine.” (2017)
  - PhD thesis at Stanford University, advised by Andrea Lunsford and Thomas Mullaney
- Mark C. Marino, Critical Code Studies (2020)
- Daniel R. Headrick, When Information Came of Age: Technologies of Knowledge in the Age of Reason and Revolution, 1700-1850『情報時代の到来：「理性と革命の時代」における知識のテクノロジー』
  - History of information systems, history of information (≠ knowledge) transmission
- Alfred W. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600『数量化革命：ヨーロッパ覇権をもたらした世界観の誕生』
  - History of quantification covering the period before Headrick’s book.
- Thierry Poibeau, Machine Translation (2017) 『機械翻訳ー歴史・技術・産業』.
日本語で書かれたコンピューティング史の文献（＊残念なことに，訳書を含め，日本語で書かれたモノグラフは極めて少ない）
- 杉本舞『「人工知能」前夜：コンピュータと脳は似ているか』
- 喜多千草『インターネットの思想史』(2003)，『起源のインターネット』（2005）
- 国立歴史民俗博物館編『REKIHAKU特集：人工知能の現代史』
  - 日本でコンピューティング史をしている研究者大集結．
- 『コンピュータ理論の起源[第１巻]：チューリング』
  - 第2巻はノイマンとのこと．
- 『コンピューティング史』巻末の杉本舞先生による「解題と読書リスト」をまず確認すると良いだろう．『科学史事典』や『Oxford数学史』や「科学史研究」も適宜参照すると良いかもしれない．

Historians of Computing (partial)

In any field, it is important to know the researchers and what they do when beginning research. The list below may include people who are not historians of computing.

Aaron Mendon-Plasek
Atsushi Akera
Ben Allen
David C. Brock
David E. Dunning
David Link
Donald MacKenzie
Doron Swade
Eden Medina
Edgar Graham Daylight
George Dyson
Gerard Alberts
Gerard O’Regan
Jack Copeland
Janet Abbate
James W. Cortada
Jeffery R Yost
Jennifer S. Light
JoAnne Yater
Joy Lisi Rankin
Ksenia Tatarchenko
Laine Nooney
Leonard J. Shustek
Liesbeth De Mol
Maarten Bullynck
Mai Sugimoto
Mar Hicks
Mark Priestley
Martin Campbell-Kelly
Mary Croarken
Matti Tedre
Michael Mahoney
Nathan Ensmenger
Paul E. Ceruzzi
Paul N. Edwards
Pierre Mounier-Kuhn
Rebecca Slayton
Sam Schirvar
Stephanie Dick
Thomas Haigh
Thomas Mullaney
Troy Kaighin Astarte
William Aspray
Zachary Loeb

Primary Source

Martin Davis, Undecidability: Basic Papers on Problems Propositions Unsolvable Problems and Computable Functions
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
- Machina arithmetica in qua non aditio tantum et subtractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, divisio vero paene nullo animi labore peragantur, 1685「加減乗除が楽にできる算術機械」
- Mira numerorum omnium expressio per 1 et 0, repraesentans rerum originem ex Deo et Nihilo, seu Mysterium creationis, 1696「すべての数を1と0によって表す驚くべき表記法．これは事物が神と無から由来すること，すなわち創造の神秘，を表現している」
- Brevis descriptio Machinae Arithmeticae, 1710「算術計算機についての概説」
Konrad Zuse, Der Computer - Mein Lebenswerk

Yudai Urabe